Summary
An energy system model includes a set of ‘technologies’ – a broad term that encompasses all forms of energy infrastructure, including power plants, transmission lines, and storage systems.
Techno-economic inputs describe the characteristics of these technologies
Below is a representative list of technology groups and the specific technologies they include.
The full set of technologies available in Scenario Builder is detailed below.
Technology set
thermal
coal
coal-subcritical
coal-supercritical
coal-ultrasupercritical
coal-circulating-fluidized-bed
coal-integrated-gasification-combined-cycle
coal-unspecified
gas
gas-internal-combustion-combined-cycle
gas-combined-cycle
gas-turbine
gas-open-cycle-gas-turbine
gas-steam-turbine
gas-integrated-solar-combined-cycle
gas-allum-fetvedt-cycle
gas-unspecified
oil
petroleum-products-internal-combustion-engine
oil-unspecified
cofiring
gas-coal-cofiring
gas-oil-cofiring
coal-bio-cofiring
gas-bio-cofiring
cofiring-unspecified
gas-ammonia-cofiring
cogeneration
gas-cogeneration
coal-cogeneration
bio-cogeneration
cogeneration-unspecified
waste
thermal-unspecified
bioenergy
biomass
biogas
bioenergy-unspecified
storage
battery
utility-scale
domestic-scale
battery-unspecified
battery-energy-storage-system
carbon-capture-and-storage
coal-ccs
gas-ccs
ccs-unspecified
renewables
marine
wave
tidal
marine-unspecified
solar
solar-unspecified
solar-thermal
concentrated-solar-thermal
solar-thermal-unspecified
photovoltaic
concentrated-photovoltaic
photovoltaic-unspecified
wind
wind-nearshore-intertidal
wind-onshore
wind-offshore
wind-offshore-unspecified
wind-offshore-hard-mount
wind-offshore-floating
wind-unspecified
geothermal
geothermal-unspecified
geothermal-flash-steam
geothermal-flash-steam-unspecified
geothermal-flash-steam-single
geothermal-flash-steam-double
geothermal-flash-steam-triple
geothermal-dry-steam
geothermal-binary-cycle
enhanced-geothermal-system
low-carbon
nuclear
hydro-reservoir-storage
hydro-reservoir
hydro-reservoir-and-run-of-river
hydro-pumped-storage
hydro-pumped-storage-unspecified
hydro-reservoir-and-pumped-storage
hydro-run-of-river
ammonia
interconnection
transmission
Technology costs
Capital costs (CAPEX)
CAPEX refers to the upfront investment needed to build new energy infrastructure. These are one-time costs for purchasing and installing technologies. The costs applied here are overnight costs - they do not include the interest during construction. This could lead to an underestimation of capital costs, especially in cases with high upfront costs, construction times, and interest rates.
- Includes: equipment, engineering, procurement, construction (EPC), land, grid connection, permitting, environmental impact assessments.
- Units: typically expressed as currency per unit of capacity (e.g. $/kW for power plants and transmission, $/kWh for storage).
Operating expenditures (OPEX)
OPEX refers to the ongoing costs to operate and maintain energy infrastructure over its lifetime, after the initial CAPEX.
- Variable O&M costs: proportional to the amount of electricity generated or activity level
- Includes: fuel costs (though sometimes treated separately, Commodity (Fuel) Price section), consumables.
- Units: $/MWh of electricity generated.
- Fixed O&M costs: incurred regardless of energy production level, typically time-based
- Includes: salaries, insurance, routine maintenance, property taxes.
- Units: $/MW/year (or $/kW/year).
Data sourcing standards for technology costs are detailed below.
Data sourcing standards – technology costs
| Input Variable | Model Type | Gold Standard (‘Best in Class’) | Silver Standard (‘Good’) | Bronze Standard (‘Publishable’) |
|---|
| Technology costs - current (CAPEX, Fixed & Variable OPEX) | CE & UD | For deregulated or liberalised markets: Auction results. Analysis based on equipment manufacturers, project developers, country-specific studies. | National-level estimates from data owner or specific national reports. | IEA region-level data, or global averages, applied to the country/region. |
| Technology costs - future projections | CE | Detailed, country-specific cost projection studies incorporating learning curves, R&D impact, and local manufacturing potential. | IEA scenarios (e.g., WEO) or other reputable international projections. | Extrapolation of current costs or application of generic global learning rates. |
Efficiencies
Efficiency represents the ratio of useful energy output to energy input, expressed as a percentage.
- Power plant efficiency: Electricity output / fuel energy input (e.g. 40% for a coal plant, 60% for a CCGT gas plant).
- Battery efficiency (round-trip efficiency): Energy discharged / energy used to charge (e.g. 85%). Can be broken down into charging and discharging efficiencies.
- Transmission and distribution (T&D) efficiency/losses: Energy delivered to end-user / energy entering the network. Losses occur over power lines.
Data sourcing standards for technology costs are detailed below.
Data sourcing standards – efficiencies
| Input Variable | Model Type | Gold Standard (‘Best in Class’) | Silver Standard (‘Good’) | Bronze Standard (‘Publishable’) |
|---|
| Efficiency / Losses | CE & UD | Observed data by asset or specific technology from data owner, adjusted by age/retrofits. | Regional/country-level technology studies. | Global technology catalogues. |
Maximum utilisation rates
The highest level at which a power plant can operate, limited by technical, economic, or regulatory factors.
- Maintenance: Planned and unplanned maintenance reduces annual output.
- Resource availability: Technologies such as solar and wind are limited by nature.
- Regulatory constraints: Policy limits or permits can reduce operating hours.
| Power Plant Type | Suggested Default Maximum Utilisation Rate | Reference |
|---|
| Nuclear | 91% | ‘Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) 2024: Technologies and Data Overview’, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2024 |
| Coal | 80% | ‘Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) 2024: Technologies and Data Overview’, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2024 |
| Natural Gas (CCGT) | 88% | ‘Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) 2024: Technologies and Data Overview’, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2024 |
| Natural Gas (OCGT) | 88% | ‘Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) 2024: Technologies and Data Overview’, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2024 |
| Biomass | 83% | ‘Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) 2024: Technologies and Data Overview’, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2024 |
| Geothermal | 90% | ‘Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) 2024: Technologies and Data Overview’, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2024 |
Operational life (Lifetime)
The expected number of years a technology can operate before needing replacement. This is a key input for investment decisions. Sourced similarly to technology costs. The following table consolidates the operational lifespan data for various power plant technologies as identified from the referenced sources.
| Power Plant Type | Operational Lifespan (Years) | Reference |
|---|
| Coal | 50 | ‘Mineral requirements for electricity generation’, 2021, World Nuclear Association (citing IEA) |
| Natural Gas (CCGT) | 30 | ‘Mineral requirements for electricity generation’, 2021, World Nuclear Association (citing IEA) |
| Natural Gas (OCGT) | 30 | ‘Mineral requirements for electricity generation’, 2021, World Nuclear Association (citing IEA) |
| Nuclear | 60 | ‘Mineral requirements for electricity generation’, 2021, World Nuclear Association (citing IEA) |
| Solar PV | 25 | ‘Mineral requirements for electricity generation’, 2021, World Nuclear Association (citing IEA) |
| Wind-Onshore | 25 | ‘Mineral requirements for electricity generation’, World Nuclear Association (citing IEA), 2021 |
| Wind-Offshore | 25 | ‘Mineral requirements for electricity generation’, World Nuclear Association (citing IEA), 2021 |
| Hydropower | 100 | ‘Hydropower Explained: Hydropower and the environment’, U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2023 |
| Geothermal | 30 | ‘FAQ (Geothermal Energy)’, Enel Green Power |
| Biomass | 25 | ‘Biomass CCS Study’, Global CCS Institute, 2015 |
Growth or Build Rates (Capacity addition constraints)
The maximum rate at which new capacity of a given technology can be built and brought online in a given year or period. This reflects real-world limitations like supply chain capacity, skilled labor, and planning/permitting timelines. These limits are set to whichever is greater: 2% of the base year capacity (measured in MW) or a 20% increase from the previous year.
Emission factors
The rate at which a technology emits pollutants, especially greenhouse gases (CO₂), per unit of energy produced or fuel consumed (e.g. tonnes CO₂/MWh or tonnes CO₂/TJ). Sources include IPCC guidelines, national emissions inventories, and specific studies. These factors are critical for calculating total emissions and assessing alignment with climate targets.
The following table summarizes the life-cycle GHG emission factors for various electricity generation technologies based on the IPCC AR6 WGIII.
| Technology | Median (gCO2eq/kWh) |
|---|
| Coal | 980 |
| Natural Gas (CCGT) | 490 |
| Natural Gas (OCGT) | 680 |
| Oil (Heavy Fuel Oil) | 740 |
Scenario Builder currently evaluates only CO₂ emissions and does not yet account for other regulated air pollutants such as NOₓ and SOₓ.
Data sourcing standards – emission factors
| Input Variable | Model Type | Gold Standard (‘Best in Class’) | Silver Standard (‘Good’) | Bronze Standard (‘Publishable’) |
|---|
| Emission factors (CO2) | CE & UD | Plant-specific or country-specific, fuel-specific, technology-specific data from official national reporting (e.g. EUTL). | Default factors from IPCC or reputable regional databases, differentiated by technology and fuel. | Global average IPCC default factors. |
